The Flavians

The Colosseum is the Flavian amphitheater. It was built over that lake that Nero had claimed for his house. Thus, this was private property that turned over to the public.

All doors are entrances — often in Rome, the games were free and funded by the emperor. The whole structure was built of concrete, which the Romans exploited. By this time, there are Roman chain gangs breaking stone and the rubble was used in concrete. The exterior was faced with brick, stucco and marble — akin to modern architecture. From the bottom to the top, the orders are Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and then Composite (a mixture of Ionic and Corinthian). This is all superficial ornamentation — none of these columns are structural.

During the Republican period, most Roman portraits were of men and mostly elders — super-realistic in style. As in Greece, woman were relegated to a secondary position during the Republican era. Prior to her marriage, a woman was subordinated to her father. After marriage, she was beholden to husband. And, if her husband died, she became the subject of her son. Women could not represent their interests in court and could not hold office. In the Republican literature, a woman was praised if she was noble and willing to sacrifice her personal interests to the good of her husband and family.

However, during the Imperial period, there is much wider variety of portraiture, including portraits of women. Moreover, the literature shows that women were praised for their beauty, their knowledge of literature, their wit in conversation, and their accomplishments in singing, dancing, and poetry.

The particular hairstyle seen above appears to have been popular during the Flavian period. It consists of a mass of corkscrew curls swept forward. Also note that each of these curls has been drilled — not chiseled. Over time, will see more and more drilling used in Roman sculpture.

Juvenal was one of the greatest Roman satirists. Late in his life, he wrote 16 long satirical poems that attacked contemporary Roman society. Satire VI is a vicious denunciation of women. In this passage, Juvenal ridicules the personal appearance and morals of fashionable women. Although this is clearly a cruel and biting portrayal, it also reflects the fact that women were more visible and seemingly more independent during the Imperial period.

From: Linnea H. Wren, Perspectives on Western Art (New York: Harper & Row, 1987), 147-48

Juvenal, Satires

Hateful Wives

There’s nothing a woman won’t do, nothing she thinks is disgraceful
With the green gems at her neck, or pearls distending her ear lobes.
Nothing is worse to endure than your Mrs. Richbitch, whose visage
Is padded and plastered with dough, in the most ridiculous manner.
Furthermore, she reeks of unguents, so God help her husband
With his wretched face stunk up with these, smeared by her lipstick
To her lovers she comes with her skin washed clean. But at home
Why does she need to look pretty? Nard is assumed for the lover,
For the lover she buys all the Arabian perfumes.

It takes her some time to strip down to her face, removing the layers
One by one, till at last she is recognizable, almost,
Then she uses a lotion, she-asses’ milk; she’d need herds
Of these creatures to keep her supplied on her northernmost journeys.
But when she’s given herself the treatment in full, from the ground base
Through the last layer of mud pack, from the first wash to a poultice,
What lies under all this—a human face, or an ulcer? . . .
No Sicilian court is more unjust than her household
If she has made a decision, and wants to appear more becoming
Than her usual style, in a hurry to get to the gardens
Where her somebody waits, or to get to the temple of Isis
(Brothel would be more like it), her hair is put up by a handmaid,
Psecas by name, with her own hair a mess, and naked of shoulder,
Naked of breasts. “Why won’t this curl lie flat?” And the cowhide
Takes it out on the maid because of the lack of a cowlick.
Why was that Psecas’ fault? Or how in the world could she help it
If the lady found the shape of her own nose disgusting?
Another maid needs both hands to comb her hair and to coil it,
Then there’s one more on the staff, who used to work for her mother,
Now more or less retired, but first to express her opinion
By seniority’s right; let the younger or awkwarder follow
Taking the floor in due course, as if we had here great questions
Of church or of state, of life or death, not merely the problem
Of the build-up of beauty, hair skyscraper-high on the head.
Look at her from the front—that must be Andromache, surely!
But from the rear she seems a good deal more like a midget.
What can she do if the luck of the draw has assigned her dimensions,
Given her half-pint size, which even high heels can’t correct,
So that she has to jump straight up in the air for her kisses?
Meanwhile, she takes no thought for her husband, or what she must cost him,
More like a neighbor than wife, and intimate only in hating
Both his friends and his slaves, and in running up bills.

Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy, after 81 A.D.

Vespasian’s older son was Titus. Titus ruled as emperor for only two years. After he died, his brother Domitian became emperor. This monument was built by Domitian on behalf of Titus.

This is a triumphal arch. These are not gates or passageways from one place to another. Rather, these were meant to be monuments. Traditionally, these were erected when the military returned to Rome after a successful campaign. Originally, these were temporary structures, and the military would march through these arches to celebrate their victories. But they were also used for celebrating important accomplishments within the empire — like building bridges and roads. Essentially, these were propagandistic works of art.

This triumphal arch was constructed from marble. It stands close to the highest point on the Sacred Way (or Sacra Via), which is one of the roads that leads to the Roman Forum. It was intended as a permanent structure.

Structurally, it is a single arch within two piers. There is specific vocabulary associated with the triumphal arch:

Entablature: Everything above the piers, including the attic (top story). It originally had a small sculptural frieze of civil and military officials in a procession to bring animals to sacrifice.
- Attic: Much of the attic and the outer halves of the piers were restored in the 19^th century. There is a lot of inscription on this monument — the letters were carved, then inlaid with bronze, and the gilt. Note that Titus is not given the major heading — but the Roman Senate is. It says “The Senate and People of Rome, to Divine Titus Vespasian Ausgustus, son of Devine Vespasian.
Piers: These are heavy, rectangular vertical supports. They are articulated with engaged columns in the Composite order (a blend of Ionic and Corinthian elements).
Spandrels: These are the areas on either side of the arch. In the spandrels, we see winged figures — allegorical or symbolic images of victory.

Arch of Titus, Spoils of Jerusalem — South Side

This triumphal arch is not dated. However, it is clear that it depicts the Triumph of Vespasian and Titus over the Jews. Titus died in 81 A.D. This arch is believed to be constructed after that date.

Although many religious cults were tolerated in the beginning of the Roman era, tensions did evolve between the Romans and the Jews associated with the province of Judea. These tensions came to a head with the Jewish Revolts which lasted from 66-70 A.D. In 66 A.D., the Jews expelled the Romans from Jerusalem. Then, Nero sent Vespasian to crush the rebellion. The Roman armies swept through the Province of Judea and, in 70 A.D., the Sack of Jerusalem occurred with the Romans burning and destroying the Jewish Temple. Note that all of the Gospels of the New Testament were written after the Jewish Revolts. This historical event marked the separation of Judaism and Christianity.

Within the triumphal arch are two large relief panels. Here, Titus celebrates his triumph over Jerusalem. These Roman soldiers are returning to Rome with booty from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the Arc of the Covenant. The figures going through a Triumphal Arch. Notice that from the left to right, the artist uses low relief that transitions to high relief and then returns to low relief. Thus, it suggests movement from the background to the foreground back to the background.

Arch of Titus, Triumph of Titus — North Side

Here we see Titus in his chariot. The horses recall those from the Parthenon and are intended as a reference to the art of Classical Greece.

However, this triumphal scene is not just recording an event that occurred, but it is also elaborated with allegory. Victory rides along with Titus and places a wreath on his head. A bare-chested male figure is probably also mythological and may represent Honor. A female personification of Valor leads the horses.

We have seen Roman art where gods and divine creatures interact with humans — that is the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii. And we have seen evidence of Emperors being descended from the gods. But this is the first time that we an Emperor interacting with the gods.

This imagery may have reflect the fact that Titus was already dead. Normally, in Roman culture, emperors were proclaimed gods after they died. If, however, they were unpopular and difficult, as was Nero, they could be damned. Remember that Titus had died before this monument was erected — this scene may reflect the belief that he was now a god interacting with other gods.

Portrait bust of a Flavian woman, from Rome, ca. 90 A.D.